1. Standrama Mac Os 11
2. Standrama Mac Os X
3. Standrama Mac Os Download
4. Standrama Mac Os Catalina

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Hierarchical File System (HFS) is a proprietaryfile system developed by Apple Inc. for use in computer systems running Mac OS. Originally designed for use on floppy and hard disks, it can also be found on read-only media such as CD-ROMs. HFS is also referred to as Mac OS Standard (or 'HFS Standard'), while its successor, HFS Plus, is also called Mac OS Extended (or 'HFS Extended').

With the introduction of Mac OS X 10.6, Apple dropped support for formatting or writing HFS disks and images, which remain supported as read-only volumes.^[1] Starting with macOS 10.15, HFS disks can no longer be read.

History[edit]

Apple introduced HFS in September 1985, specifically to support Apple's first hard disk drive for the Macintosh, replacing the Macintosh File System (MFS), the original file system which had been introduced over a year and a half earlier with the first Macintosh computer. HFS drew heavily upon Apple's first hierarchical operating system (SOS) for the failed Apple III, which also served as the basis for hierarchical file systems on the Apple IIe and Apple Lisa. HFS was developed by Patrick Dirks and Bill Bruffey. It shared a number of design features with MFS that were not available in other file systems of the time (such as DOS's FAT). Files could have multiple forks (normally a data and a resource fork), which allowed the main data of the file to be stored separately from resources such as icons that might need to be localized. Files were referenced with unique file IDs rather than file names, and file names could be 255 characters long (although the Finder only supported a maximum of 31 characters).

However, MFS had been optimized to be used on very small and slow media, namely floppy disks, so HFS was introduced to overcome some of the performance problems that arrived with the introduction of larger media, notably hard drives. The main concern was the time needed to display the contents of a folder. Under MFS all of the file and directory listing information was stored in a single file, which the system had to search to build a list of the files stored in a particular folder. This worked well with a system with a few hundred kilobytes of storage and perhaps a hundred files, but as the systems grew into megabytes and thousands of files, the performance degraded rapidly.

The solution was to replace MFS's directory structure with one more suitable to larger file systems. HFS replaced the flat table structure with the Catalog File which uses a B-tree structure that could be searched very quickly regardless of size. HFS also redesigned various structures to be able to hold larger numbers, 16-bit integers being replaced by 32-bit almost universally. Oddly, one of the few places this 'upsizing' did not take place was the file directory itself, which limits HFS to a total of 65,535 files on each logical disk.

While HFS is a proprietary file system format, it is well-documented; there are usually solutions available to access HFS-formatted disks from most modern operating systems.

Apple introduced HFS out of necessity with its first 20 MB hard disk offering for the Macintosh in September 1985, where it was loaded into RAM from a MFS floppy disk on boot using a patch file ('Hard Disk 20'). However, HFS was not widely introduced until it was included in the 128K ROM that debuted with the Macintosh Plus in January 1986 along with the larger 800 KB floppy disk drive for the Macintosh that also used HFS. The introduction of HFS was the first advancement by Apple to leave a Macintosh computer model behind: the original 128K Macintosh, which lacked sufficient memory to load the HFS code and was promptly discontinued.

In 1998, Apple introduced HFS Plus to address inefficient allocation of disk space in HFS and to add other improvements. HFS is still supported by current versions of Mac OS, but starting with Mac OS X, an HFS volume cannot be used for booting, and beginning with Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard), HFS volumes are read-only and cannot be created or updated. In macOS Sierra (10.12), Apple's release notes state that 'The HFS Standard filesystem is no longer supported.'^[2] However, read-only HFS Standard support is still present in Sierra and works as it did in previous versions.

Design[edit]

A storage volume is inherently divided into logical blocks of 512 bytes. The Hierarchical File System groups these logical blocks into allocation blocks, which can contain one or more logical blocks, depending on the total size of the volume. HFS uses a 16-bit value to address allocation blocks, limiting the number of allocation blocks to 65,535 (2¹⁶-1).

Five structures make up an HFS volume:

1. Logical blocks 0 and 1 of the volume are the Boot Blocks, which contain system startup information. For example, the names of the System and Shell (usually the Finder) files which are loaded at startup.
2. Logical block 2 contains the Master Directory Block (aka MDB). This defines a wide variety of data about the volume itself, for example date & time stamps for when the volume was created, the location of the other volume structures such as the Volume Bitmap or the size of logical structures such as allocation blocks. There is also a duplicate of the MDB called the Alternate Master Directory Block (aka Alternate MDB) located at the opposite end of the volume in the second to last logical block. This is intended mainly for use by disk utilities and is only updated when either the Catalog File or Extents Overflow File grow in size.
3. Logical block 3 is the starting block of the Volume Bitmap, which keeps track of which allocation blocks are in use and which are free. Each allocation block on the volume is represented by a bit in the map: if the bit is set then the block is in use; if it is clear then the block is free to be used. Since the Volume Bitmap must have a bit to represent each allocation block, its size is determined by the size of the volume itself.
4. The Extent Overflow File is a B-tree that contains extra extents that record which allocation blocks are allocated to which files, once the initial three extents in the Catalog File are used up. Later versions also added the ability for the Extent Overflow File to store extents that record bad blocks, to prevent the file system from trying to allocate a bad block to a file.
5. The Catalog File is another B-tree that contains records for all the files and directories stored in the volume. It stores four types of records. Each file consists of a File Thread Record and a File Record while each directory consists of a Directory Thread Record and a Directory Record. Files and directories in the Catalog File are located by their unique Catalog Node ID (or CNID).
   • A File Thread Record stores just the name of the file and the CNID of its parent directory.
   • A File Record stores a variety of metadata about the file including its CNID, the size of the file, three timestamps (when the file was created, last modified, last backed up), the first file extents of the data and resource forks and pointers to the file's first data and resource extent records in the Extent Overflow File. The File Record also stores two 16 byte fields that are used by the Finder to store attributes about the file including things like its creator code, type code, the window the file should appear in and its location within the window.
   • A Directory Thread Record stores just the name of the directory and the CNID of its parent directory.
   • A Directory Record which stores data like the number of files stored within the directory, the CNID of the directory, three timestamps (when the directory was created, last modified, last backed up). Like the File Record, the Directory Record also stores two 16 byte fields for use by the Finder. These store things like the width & height and x & y co-ordinates for the window used to display the contents of the directory, the display mode (icon view, list view, etc.) of the window and the position of the window's scroll bar.

Limitations[edit]

The Catalog File, which stores all the file and directory records in a single data structure, results in performance problems when the system allows multitasking, as only one program can write to this structure at a time, meaning that many programs may be waiting in queue due to one program 'hogging' the system.^[3] It is also a serious reliability concern, as damage to this file can destroy the entire file system. This contrasts with other file systems that store file and directory records in separate structures (such as DOS's FAT file system or the Unix File System), where having structure distributed across the disk means that damaging a single directory is generally non-fatal and the data may possibly be re-constructed with data held in the non-damaged portions.

Additionally, the limit of 65,535 allocation blocks resulted in files having a 'minimum' size equivalent 1/65,535th the size of the disk. Thus, any given volume, no matter its size, could only store a maximum of 65,535 files. Moreover, any file would be allocated more space than it actually needed, up to the allocation block size. When disks were small, this was of little consequence, because the individual allocation block size was trivial, but as disks started to approach the 1 GB mark, the smallest amount of space that any file could occupy (a single allocation block) became excessively large, wasting significant amounts of disk space. For example, on a 1 GB disk, the allocation block size under HFS is 16 KB, so even a 1 byte file would take up 16 KB of disk space. This situation was less of a problem for users having large files (such as pictures, databases or audio) because these larger files wasted less space as a percentage of their file size. Users with many small files, on the other hand, could lose a copious amount of space due to large allocation block size. This made partitioning disks into smaller logical volumes very appealing for Mac users, because small documents stored on a smaller volume would take up much less space than if they resided on a large partition. The same problem existed in the FAT16 file system.

HFS saves the case of a file that is created or renamed but is case-insensitive in operation.

According to bombich.com, HFS is no longer supported on Catalina and future macOS releases.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Gagne, Ken (2009-08-31). 'Losing legacy data to Snow Leopard'. Computerworld. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
2. ^'What's New in macOS: macOS Sierra 10.12'. Apple. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
3. ^Giampaolo, Dominic (1999). Practical File System Design with the Be File System(PDF). Morgan Kaufmann. p. 37. ISBN1-55860-497-9. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2017-02-13. Retrieved 2006-07-13.

External links[edit]

• HFS specification from developer.apple.com
• The HFS Primer (PDF) from MWJ - dead link as of 27. May 2017
• Filesystems HOWTO: HFS - slightly out of date
• HFS File Structure Explained - early description of HFS
• DiskWarrior - Software to eliminate all damage to the HFS disk directory
• MacDrive - Software to read and write HFS/HFS Plus-formatted disks on Microsoft Windows
• hfsutils - open-source software to manipulate HFS on Unix, DOS, Windows, OS/2

Standrama Mac Os 11

What's Mac OS X? What are the key features of Mac OS X? This article will introduce Mac OS in details and show you how to make full use of Mac OS features.

OS X, also macOS, is the Unix-based graphical interface operating system developed by Apple Inc. to exclusively power every Mac computer. It's engineered to make the utmost of what the hardware is capable of and to deliver the most intuitive and comprehensive computer experience in the world.

Mac OS X, X on behalf of the Roman numeral for 10, was the successor to Mac OS 9 (released in 1999) and its first version released was Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, followed with Mac OS X v10.0 'Cheetah' in 2001. Former releases of OS X were named after big cats, such as OS X v10.8 referred to as 'Mountain Lion'. Yet, with the exposure of Mavericks in June 2013, this was dropped in favor of Californian landmarks and this codename tradition lasts to 10.10 Yosemite. In 2015, we eventually wait the day of 10.11 El Capitan's arrivial.

Part 1: Mac OS X Versions up to Now

From the table, you can see Apple insists on continuously surpassing itself that promptly upgrades its OS X nearly every one or two years and each OS X upgrade brings you a better combination of your software and hardware on Mac computer. An obvious example is that using DVD ripper to rip and copy DVD on your MacBook Air, MacBook Pro or iMac is seemingly much quicker and easier with the enhanced OS X. And when you apply MacX YouTube Downloader to download YouTube video on Mac, you can also find the YouTube downloader works seamlessly with your Mac to jointly aid you to effortlessly download YouTube video on Mac with amazing fast speed up to 83X faster.

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Part 2: Main Features of Mac OS X

Software and Hardware Seamlessly Work together

OS X is designed to bring the best Mac experience for you, so you get a fully integrated system in which software and hardware work together perfectly. It has a cordial working with the processor in your Mac to deliver the most amazing performance. It goes well with the super-responsive trackpad in Mac notebooks such that Multi Touch gestures feel extremely natural to use. And also it's upgraded for the high-resolution Retina display in the high-performance MacBook Pro.

Brain-Dead Easy to Use and Enjoy

With Mac OS X installed, you are tethered to do everything on Mac with simple, intuitive gestures needed. You see, the Dock takes it opening your favorite apps like a duck to water. The Finder lets you browse and organize your files easy as rolling off a log. And Launchpad makes you access to your full library of the whole apps in a flash. The mentionable Spotlight search lets locate the file you're searching for without any hitch. Actually, a Mac does plethora of things automatically, among which you don't even have to have a finger in.

Inseparable Mac OS X and iOS 9.3 Devices

Well, if you already have a shot on an iPhone or iPad, you will be not unfamiliar with its big brother Mac OS X since OS X and iOS have plenty of the same apps and features — Safari, Mail, Contacts, Calendar, Maps, to name a few. Attributing to the feasible iCloud, the apps on your Mac work together with the apps on your iOS devices. To illustrate you, no matter what you do in apps on your Mac will happen on your other ios devices, as well. By the same token, a contact or a calendar event you add on your iPhone will appear on your Mac, too. That's why we say OS X and iOS are inseparable brothers.

Terrific Apps for Everything You Do

Standrama Mac Os Download

Generally speaking, you do everyday things on computer usually ranging from surfing the Internet, sending messages to managing your contacts, reading e-books and alike. With Mac OS X standing by, you enable to do things by exerting its ultrafast Safari, message app, Contacts app and iBook with a few mouse clicks. In addition, there are still a slew of other amazing apps like Maps, Reminders, Time machine, Face Time, Photo Booth and more for you to address your needs.

Security Comes First on Mac OS X

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Every Mac is wrapped up with advanced technologies that work together to continuously scrutinize and ultimately safeguard your Mac safer. OS X covers a glut of mighty features to protect your Mac and all the information on it, and so does Gatekeeper when it comes to download and install apps. Additionally, Sandboxing guarantees your system secure by segregating apps from each other, as well as from your system and data. Pretty sure, the previous versions of Mac OS X being problem-free in security, hence its latest Mac OS X El Capitan will do far better on security and much easier than ever to keep your Mac safe.

The above mentioned statements talk about the general features OS X has, and for numerous Mac users who are using the latest Mac OS X El Capitan but have little knowledge about OS X 10.11, it's seemingly necessary to specify Mac El Capitan for them. Here the focus mainly rests with its enhanced features it has. Let's have a look now.

What's New in Mac OS X 10.11 El Capitan?

macOS brings the Mac users with countless features and apps for them to make computer experience much easier and more wonderful. But the latest Mac OS X 10.10 bothers a crowd of Mac users, for their previous video converter for Mac is not compatible with Mac OS X 10.10, let alone the 10.11 or higher. In such case, the solid yet first rate video converter for Mac -MacX Video Converter Pro can deliver the assistance to you such that converting SD or HD video to MP4, MOV, FLV, AVI, MKV on Mac is just a piece of cake.